In September 1931 Imperial Japanese Army troops stationed in the Kwantung concession undertook the invasion of Manchuria, after a confusing incident. The resistance of the Chinese units stationed there was very weak and in a short time the Japanese took control of the area, establishing a puppet regime. The occupation of Manchuria was the first step in a series of actions that over the years would end up leading to the Second World War.
Historic context
Around 1900 the Chinese Empire was ruled by the Qing. This dynasty, of Manchu origin, had governed the destinies of the Celestial Empire since the mid-seventeenth century. However, its power began to decline during the nineteenth century, both internally and externally. The Opium Wars Showed China’s Military and Technological Weakness against the increasingly aggressive European powers.
The First Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895) ended with another humiliating defeat for the Imperial Court in Beijing, which was forced to make concessions. The Japanese armies came to stroll through the south of Manchuria and conquer several places before the impotence of the Chinese armies. The contest not only confirmed once again the military weakness of the Celestial Empire, but rather showed to what extent the country was falling behind in the race for modernization. Taking advantage of this, Tsarist Russia invaded most of Manchuria, establishing a de facto protectorate. He also undertook the construction of a railway line – the so-called “trans-Manchurian” – that shortened the connection with Vladivostok and a branch that linked with the Port Arthur naval base.
Manchuria would once again be the scene of a conflict, the Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905), in which the latter ended up prevailing. this victory Not only reaffirmed Japanese influence in the area, very present since 1895. The Japanese also gained control of the Liaotung Peninsula (the so-called “Kwantung Concession”) and the southern branch of the Trans-Manchurian Railway. This railway line, which linked Changchun and Dalian, would be managed by a company with Japanese capital. Paradoxically, despite the fact that the war was waged on its territory, the Chinese authorities stayed out of it. That was one more example of the decomposition that the Qing dynasty was going through, which would end up being succeeded by a Republic in 1912.
The situation in Manchuria around 1930
Manchuria it was one of the main regions of China. It was located in the northeast of the country and bordered Mongolia, Soviet Russia, and Korea—then part of Japan. In addition to its strategic position, this territory was an important source of raw materials (coal, iron, wood, etc.). Since the Russo-Japanese War the Japanese presence had grown considerably in the shadow of the South Manchurian Railway. Thus, by 1930 Japanese investments in the area were around 1,500 million yen at the time, being present in numerous sectors. The Land of the Rising Sun depended on Manchu imports, especially products such as soybeans (Parker, 1978: 284).
Regime change in China did not materialize the wishes of many reformists, who hoped that the country would modernize and democratize. in the 1920s the manchu territorylike an important part of the old Celestial Empire, was in the hands of power cliques and warlords. The strong man in the area was Generalissimo Zhang Zuolin, who ruled Manchuria as if it were his own. Zhang recounted the Japanese support for many years, who saw in him a guarantor of his interests, although he would end up breaking with them. His assassination in 1928 at the hands of the Japanese military, in a bomb attack while traveling by rail (Vogel, 2019: 227), hinted at the extent to which Japan was present in Manchuria.
Zhang Zuolin would be succeeded by his son, Zhang Xueliang, nicknamed the “young Marshal”. From very early on, he undertook a rapprochement with the central government of Nanjing and opted to reduce foreign influence in the area. In 1929 he attempted to wrest control of the Trans-Manchurian Railway from the Soviets, but this attempt failed. Zhang Xueliang’s forces suffered a resounding defeat in the Sino-Soviet War, reluctantly accepting the Soviet presence. It was also tried to reduce the Japanese presence in Manchuria, developing several propaganda campaigns against his interests in the area. Among other things, Chinese nationalist circles raised the idea of leaving the Japanese from the South Manchurian railway (Parker, 1978: 284-285).
The Mukden Incident
During the summer of 1931 the tension between Chinese and Japanese had increased considerably as a result of several incidents. This would be the case of the execution of Captain Shintarō Nakamura, a Japanese secret agent. Nakamura was shot by the Chinese in early July after being discovered carrying out espionage activities in Manchuria.
On the night of 18 September a bomb exploded, affecting a section of the South Manchurian Railway north of Mukden. In the initial confusion, the Japanese side blamed the Chinese for being responsible. However, it later came to light that the blasting was part of a premeditated plan and had been carried out by Japanese agents belonging to ultra-nationalist groups. This event, which would become known as the “mukden incident» (Moreno, 1992: 36), led to the deployment of units of the Kwantung Army through Manchu territory without authorization from their superiors.
The next day, September 19, Japanese forces took the strategic city of Mukden by arms, as well as other cities in the area: Andong, Yingkou, Liaoyang or Changchun. The chinese resistance was weak and generally these actions were performed with some ease. The Tokyo government was initially unaware of the invasion, and when it was finally made aware, it tried to reach a settlement with the Chinese. However, despite his attempts, the civil power was powerless before the military hierarchy and ended up assuming a policy of accomplished facts. The Japanese commanders in Manchuria not only obtained the support of the High General Staff, but also the acquiescence of Emperor Hirohito. In addition, they could count on the help of the South Manchurian Railway Company, which was especially important from a logistical point of view.
media echo
News of the Mukden incident and subsequent Japanese invasion was soon circulated by the international media. Incidents in that area had not been new for a long time. Therefore, initially what happened in Manchuria did not seem to have a special singularity. In fact, around the same time there was a serious financial crisis in England, which included the collapse of the value of the pound sterling. In contrast, this fact attracted greater attention from the international press, relegating for several days what was happening in northeast China.
However, as the weeks went by, the invasion of Manchuria began to monopolize more pages in the press internationally, especially during the autumn of 1932. The Spanish press of the time also did regular coverage of what was happening in this historic Chinese region. Among other things, because in the League of Nations —predecessor of the current UN— debate began on this matter. It also became clear that the conflict was not going to be a simple incident.
Invasion spreads across Manchuria
Initially the government of Tokyo came to commit itself before the League of Nations that it would leave the Manchu territory. A purpose that, however, clashed head-on with the intentions of the Japanese commanders in Manchuria. In the face of weak resistance, they advocated to continue advancing. And they had good reason to trust this initiative. Despite the fact that the Chinese were in the area of numerical superiority, their weaponry and quality as combat troops left much to be desired. The central government in Nanjing also did not show much determination to resist the invasion. It should be noted that at that time the nationalists led by Chiang Kai-shek were more focused on fighting the Communist Party of China.
In November the Japanese launched an offensive on Heilongjiang province, targeting the capital Qiqihar. Chinese forces in the area, commanded by General Ma Zhanshan, offered token resistance at the Nenjiang Bridge, but eventually retreated. The Japanese took Qiqihar on November 19, after which the rest of the province fell into their hands. Notably the conquerors had the collaboration of local elements, led by General Zhang Jinghui, who advocated the secession of the territory. Another local commander in the area, General Zhang Haipeng, had also joined the Japanese ranks (Mitter, 2000: 122).
A new operation, launched at the beginning of December, would lead the Japanese to conquer the city of Chinchow and the surrounding area. With this, once the south of Manchuria was secured, at the beginning of 1932 they launched a new offensive. This was aimed capture harbina important city and communications hub. Harbin’s defenders tried to keep the city under their control, as it opened the door to northern Manchuria. However, once again Japanese superiority prevailed over the poorly trained and equipped Chinese troops. Harbin fell into Japanese hands in February 1932 (Gamsa, 2020: 94). After surviving units withdrew south, by the end of February Chinese resistance in Manchu territory had ended.
There were not a few criticisms that fell on the Chinese leaders at that time for what many considered an abandonment of the territory in the face of external invasion. Some author has suggested the possibility that the defeat in the Sino-Soviet war of 1929 later influenced the will to resist the Japanese (Mitter, 2000: 50-51). The fact that some local commanders went over with their units to the Japanese side strongly reflects the state of the defending forces.
fighting in shanghai
At the beginning of 1932, while the Japanese were gaining a foothold in Manchuria, in Shanghai a new front was opened for China. The Japanese sent military units to this important city after anti-Japanese riots spread. The origin of them would have been in a strange incident that occurred between Chinese citizens and Japanese monks. In a short time Shanghai became a battlefield, increasing pressure on Chinese leaders. It should not be forgotten that at that time the capital of China was in the city of Nanjing, near Shanghai. It would not be until March when a ceasefire was signed between…