In this article we will try to shed light on one of the darkest points in current historiography, such as Africa in the last 200 years. Since the World Wars and the Cold War have diverted the focus of attention from this continent, we will briefly review its colonization by Europeans, its life as a colony, and, finally, its independence. As covering an entire continent in one article is crazy, we will use the example of Nigeria to illustrate, in broad strokes, the ss. XIX and XX in Africa.
pre-colonialism
In the area of present-day Nigeria and much of West Africa, there were several kingdoms already established before the arrival of Europeans in the s. XIX., as the kingdom of Futa Jallon, the Toucouleur empire or, later, the Sokoto caliphate. In general, the West African kingdoms will have many contacts with people from all over the world, especially Europeans. These first contacts will be for the trafficking of raw materials and slaves, as we saw in the article by Olaudah Equiano, but they were complicated contacts, especially due to diseases, such as malaria, which caused European traders to fear entering the interior of the continent, allowing thus the existence and flourishing of these kingdoms between the ss. XV-XVIII.
Great Britain will be the first European power to explore the interior of West Africa at the end of the s. XVIII. Sierra Leone will be the first English “bridgehead” for the jump to Africa. After the slave trade was abolished (1807), the English began to be interested in other products from the area, especially palm oil, highly demanded in Europe for the development of the Industrial Revolution and cosmetic products (soaps) and food products (margarine , ice creams,…). Rubber and cotton were also important products.
The main people, and culturally most prominent, of those who populate Nigeria in the pre-colonial period are the Igbos (or Ibos), and their main region is the area between the Niger River and the Cross River. The occupation of Nigeria by the Igbos dates back some 2000 years, as traces of iron and copper working have been found in the region. Although they are grouped as Igbos (a cultural concept constructed by Europeans in the 20th century), they have many internal differences, but the cultural and socio-political base is the same. The main Igbo common point is religion. The Igbos do not have a centralized political power, since they live in autonomous villages governed by their elders (onyisi) in a communal patriarchal system, that is, grouped by sex and age, they carry out the tasks that the community needs (army, cleaning, police, religion,…).
To the west we find the Yoruba, grouped in the Oyo Empire. In central and northern Nigeria (and parts of Benin and Chad) we find the Fulani, who formed the Sokoto Caliphate in the early 15th century. XIX after the so-called “Fulani Jihad” (1804-1808), initiated by Usman dan Fodio (1754-1817), a scholar of Islam. The Fulani (or Fulbe) were Islamist Africans who fought to spread Islam against local paganism. The power of the Sokoto Caliphate was increasing until the middle of the s. XIX, when its decline begins. This is when the British and French begin to intervene until Britain invades and annexes the Sokoto Caliphate in 1903.
Colonization
The colonization process in Nigeria was complex due to the variety of ethnic groups and regions in the territory, so the colonization methods vary from one area to another. The first contacts between the Europeans and the Igbos date from the beginning of the s. XIX, with the first British expeditions across the Niger River. However, diseases made these expeditions fail.
It will be from 1850, and thanks to improvements in medicine and knowledge of the area, when relations intensify and change, since not only commercial interest prevailed, but also political (“gunboat diplomacy«). Generally, the first contacts were made with Christian missionaries on an evangelizing mission. The first mission in Igboland dates back to 1857. Although at first the Igbos accepted Christianity as they were very tolerant, soon after they saw that the Christians wanted to destroy their religion, so they started attacking the Christian missions.
The growing British influence was beginning to be felt, both internally and externally, and the French and Germans launched expeditions into the area, although they were unsuccessful, as the British rushed to conquer it, following the guidelines of the Berlin Conference, to prevent their enemies exploited the rich Nigerian territory. The complete colonization process lasted 42 years, from 1861 (foundation of Lagos Colony) to 1903 (conquest of Sokoto) and the backbone of the process was the Niger River, one of the most important rivers in Africa and navigable, which facilitated communications and the transport of goods, people and ideas. Some peoples resisted the conquest (“Ekumeku Movement«) and acted as guerrillas in secret, but their power was very small compared to the technological superiority of the British and the resistance was easily put down.
The main reason for the colonization was the increase in the influence of Great Britain regionally and locally, as many natives thought that, by allying with Great Britain, they could achieve great things for themselves. As has been said, the first contacts were made with Christian missionaries, who spread rapidly in the south of Nigeria, but in the north, Islam was a tough rival.
The spread of Christianity was rapid thanks to the acceptance of the natives for two reasons: they thought that being Christian would be a moral advantage over the rest and because Christian schools facilitated trade with Great Britain and a better life. In addition, the missionaries made an effort to learn the native language, which enabled them to win indigenous support and, with it, they could win the support of “impenetrable” regions, such as the Sokoto Caliphate. The work of Christianization was soon followed by military and diplomatic support.
In the second half of the s. XIX, the British presence was intensified and military contingents began to arrive. Trade became especially important and many local chiefs exercised abusive monopolies, so Great Britain wanted to control these exchanges. In 1841 there was the first attempt at direct trade between Great Britain and the interior of Nigeria, however, it would be in 1854 when the first company was established in the interior of Nigeria, avoiding malaria with quinine. This began to ruin the coastal cities that until then monopolized trade with the interior. The situation became unstable and Britain had to intervene militarily to ensure the safety of its merchants and missionaries.
France began, in the late 1870s, to increase its influence in West Africa from Senegal. Germany began to probe the territory in 1880, especially after the annexation of Cameroon in 1884. This threat encouraged the British government to secure political control of the Niger River. Great Britain already had control of the coast since 1861 with the Lagos Colony, but it would not be until 1885 when it began to penetrate Nigeria.
The army followed in the footsteps of the commercial and religious companies. Some towns accepted British power, but others were forcibly subdued, such as Ijebuland in 1892, in a conflict that lasted 4 days, demonstrating British superiority. In 1893, all the towns of Yorubaland (in the west) accepted British rule. In the east (Niger Delta), the presence of the companies for a long time made the annexation more peaceful, although also forced. Except for Lagos, no colonies were established, but British protectorates were appointed.
With the safe coast, at the end of the s. XIX began to ascend the Niger River. There, instead of creating a protectorate, they gave control to the Royal Niger Company (RNC), former National African Company (NAC). With this, the local administration remained intact, but the commercial monopoly belonged to Great Britain. The French and German competition was left out of the game. The monopoly and abuse of the NCR in Niger was enormous, but necessary to secure the ‘gold mine’. But in 1899 the NCR collapsed, and as a result Great Britain came to de facto occupy the territory of central Nigeria. was created the West African Frontier Force (WAFF), which managed to expel the French and secure British control of the Niger River. Some territories were incorporated into the «Niger Coast Protectorate“, forming the “Protectorate of South Nigeria«. The rest formed theProtectorate of North Nigeria«.
It is then that interest in the Sokoto caliphate arises. Despite having expelled France and Germany, security would continue to be incomplete with the Sokoto caliphate present on the northern border, as Sokoto could achieve its own influence in Nigeria or agree with France, since the French expansion in Sudan had led them to come into contact with them from the north and east. British diplomatic contacts had failed and, therefore, the only way out was the military conquest of the area. First, the border emirates were conquered. In 1902 the British army entered the Sokoto caliphate and a year later, on July 27, 1903, the caliph fell and the colonization of Nigeria was completed with the annexation of Sokoto.
colonial government
When in 1914 the colonizing process of Nigeria culminated with the creation of «Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria«, led by Frederick Lugard, Governor of Nigeria, Great Britain began to extend its cultural and administrative system throughout Nigeria. Sometimes this led to unexpected consequences.
The objective of all colonization was to achieve a society that produced cheap raw materials and bought European manufactures, because with this, colonization allowed the metropolis to enrich. Thus, the first measures were economic. Although the objective was always, in theory, the “mutual benefit” of the European metropolis and the African colony, known as “dual mandate«, that is, to serve the economic interests of the metropolis and help the development (“civilization”) of the natives. Europeans believed that:
«We are bringing to the dark places of earth the torch of culture and progress«.
«We are bringing to the dark places of the earth the torch of culture and progress«.
The situation for the Nigerian government was complicated, as there was a complex mosaic of cultures and governments. Therefore, it was decided to intervene as little as possible in the local day-to-day. Decisions made would be about global administration, economics, or ‘immoral practices’, while local chiefs would be responsible for bringing British decisions to their people/culture. With this, resistance to foreign authority would be avoided and it would give the feeling that the bosses…