After the Japanese invasion of Manchuria in 1931, military circles in Tokyo promoted the creation of a puppet nation which they called manchukuo. Although from very early on an attempt was made to transmit abroad an image of sovereignty and independence, it always fell on the country. the long shadow of the Japanese Empire.
The Japanese created an artificial country tailored to their needs, which they exploited economically for their own benefit. Economic and technological development was accompanied by abuse, exploitation and repression. Manchukuo has gone down in history as a symbol of Japanese expansionism and as a genuine case of a “disguised” colony.
Origins and creation of Manchukuo
In September 1931 Japanese forces invaded the Chinese region of Manchuria, after an incident caused by Japanese agents against a railway line. In a short time they took control of the area, without encountering much resistance from the Chinese forces deployed there. By the beginning of 1932 they already dominated several provinces, including the border area with the Soviet Union. What was Tokyo going to do?
In Japan there were many who wanted control of the Manchu region since the times of the Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905). The fact remains that the invasion of Manchuria had not been authorized by the Japanese cabinet. In fact it constituted an act of insubordination. time passed politicians in Tokyo met with a fait accompli. At first they were inclined to withdraw from the territory. Finally, they did not oppose the designs of the military faction, which wanted to maintain the occupation. The truth is that the conquest of Manchuria was well received by the Japanese population. Many Japanese saw in it a kind of economic lifeline for the national economy, affected by the «Crack of 29» (Young, 1998: 88–93).
From Japanese military circles the creation of a new country was advocated based on the self-determination of the Manchu people. In this regard, Colonel Kenji Doihara, considered an expert on Chinese issues, played an important role. To that end, Japanese agents secured the transfer to Manchuria of Puyi, the last Chinese emperor of the Qing dynasty. Puyi was of Manchu origin, which would come to legitimize the independence of Manchuria against Chinese nationalism. Thus, on February 18, 1932, the independence of what would be known as manchukuoin an act full of celebrations and pomp.
The Lytton Commission
Since the Chinese military units in Manchuria had been unable to stop the Japanese invasion, the Kuomintang government resorted to diplomacy. The Chinese representative to the League of Nations (SdN) denounced what happened, trying to get the intervention of this body. The LoN organized an international commission of inquiry, led by GR Bulwer-Lytton. He traveled to the territory to investigate what happened. However, by then the Japanese had already established a power structure in Manchuria subservient to their interests.
Japanese propaganda attempts to present Manchukuo as a free country were unsuccessful. The major powers of the time flatly rejected this possibility, and they considered the country a mere Japanese potectorate «covert». When the Lytton Commission presented its conclusions (which gave a boost to China) the isolation of the government in Tokyo became even more evident. Faced with that situation, they opted to maintain their presence in Manchuria and assume the consequences. At the beginning of 1933, the Japanese delegate left the League of Nations (Shimamoto, Ito, Sugita, 2015: 177).
The Manchukuo Empire
In anticipation of the Lytton Commission report, the Japanese went ahead and in October 1932 recognized Manchukuo as a sovereign nation. Furthermore, both parties they signed a secret protocol which came to confirm the subjugation of the Manchu state to Japan and its status as a protectorate. Said protocol conferred great power of action and decision on Japanese officials and officers.
At first it was not clear what form of state would be adopted. Some collaborationist elements with the Japanese were in favor of undertaking the monarchical restoration in the figure of Puyi. But Japanese strategists initially rejected this possibility. There were also discrepancies between the Tokyo government and the Japanese military in Manchuria. Finally, it was agreed that the State would be constituted under a form of centralized autocracy (Yamamuro, 2006: 121). In it, Japanese officials would hold key positions. By 1933 a basic Manchu administration had already been articulated, with a governing council and other bodies.
But there were other issues to resolve. Until then the head of state had been held by Puyi, to whom the Japanese had promised that he would become emperor. This would not happen until March 1, 1934, the date on which was proclaimed Emperor of Manchukuo —under the name of Kangde— in a highly decorated propaganda event. Also during that year there were diplomatic recognitions by some countries, which at first seemed promising.
Political system
Manchukuo had a political system that was built during the first years, with the intention of give it an appearance of institutional normalcy. Since Puyi’s imperial enthronement, Manchukuo has been configured as a monarchy, with a council of ministers and several consultative bodies. There was also a legislative council, although its functions were merely ceremonial. Executive power was exercised through the so-called Council of State for General Affairs. Its secretary general and gray eminence was a native Japanese. For its part, the organization of the territory was carried out through a division into provinces, headed by a governor. The capital was located in the city of Hsinking.
However, aside from these organisms of a decorative nature, real power rested with Japanese advisers. These constituted de facto a shadow government. These advisers were located in key positions in the administration. Puyi, as head of state, had purely ceremonial functions and during his tenure of office he never raised opposition to the dictates of his advisers. A good example of the prevailing situation was the fact that the country never had a constitution, despite the fact that its promulgation was planned.
Early on, Japanese propaganda spread the idea that Manchukuo was a “multinational” state (Westad, 2012: 252). This approach was partly rooted in the old principle of “five races under one union». This had been one of the founding principles of the Chinese Republic in 1912. The Japanese manipulated the original meaning and modified it to refer to the harmonious coexistence of Manchus, Japanese, Han Chinese, Mongols and Koreans. Manchukuo’s own flag, made up of five colors—yellow, red, blue, white, and black—reproduced this idea.
A a good part of the Manchu elites collaborated in the project of the new regime, forming part of the cadres of the administration. A prominent case was the Aisin Gioro clan, to which Puyi himself belonged. This became the new imperial family. Some prominent Chinese figures would join this current, such as Zheng Xiaoxu —former Qing official who would serve as prime minister—. The Japanese too they managed to recycle old bandits Y Lords of war to integrate them into the new collaborationist elite. This would be the case of generals Zhang Jinghui and Zhang Haipeng, who held relevant positions. Zhang Jinghui was placed by the Japanese as prime minister (Yamamuro, 2006: 171).
Official authorities only authorized the activity of a single political party, the Concordia Association of Manchukuo. Founded in 1932 (Duus, Myers, Peattie, 1989: 410), the party was born with the idea of promoting harmonious coexistence among ethnic groups. It was also intended to provide the government with social and political support. Although it came to provide the regime with an important bureaucratic apparatus, it never had a relevant political role. On the other hand, it should be noted that some ethnic minorities also had their own organizations.
Armed forces
Shortly after the creation of Manchukuo, the Japanese found it necessary to establish an auxiliary armed force. The presence of armed groups loyal to the Chinese government constituted a serious threat. For this reason, Imperial Manchukuo Army establishedmulti-ethnic in nature. Although it was initially made up of an amalgamation of various units, over time it expanded and improved its organization. However, far from enjoying any kind of autonomy, it was controlled and directed by Japanese officers. Also their weapons and equipment came mostly from the Japanese army.
Apart from the Imperial Manchukuo Army, a small Navy and Air Force were also formed. Regarding the navy, it had an eminently river character and a short existence, being dissolved in 1939. Military aviation, on the other hand, had a longer journey. As was the case with the Army, the aviation was equipped with equipment of mostly Japanese origin (Jowett, 2004: 90–92).
However, these Armed Forces constituted more of an auxiliary element at the service of the Empire of the Rising Sun. Japan had a large garrison to secure control of Manchuria, the so-called kwantung army. This force, constituted as a group of armies, had a powerful arsenal and numerous troops. It also had a section dedicated to bacteriological warfare, Unit 731, known for having carried out experiments and perpetrated numerous crimes.
The Armed Forces of Manchukuo hardly got involved in military actions. His main performances took place within the framework of the border conflicts between the Japanese and the Soviets in Manchuria. Thus, they came to see action during the battles of Lake Jasan (1938) and Jaljin Gol (1939), in support of Japanese units. On the contrary, they did play a relevant role in the operations against the Chinese guerrillas operating inside Manchuria. In this role, the Japanese of Manchu origin Yoshiko Kawashima would stand out, who commanded an anti-guerrilla unit and became known as the «Joan of Arc of Manchukuo» (Edwards, 2016: 99).
Economy
Manchuria possessed a number of raw materials which, prior to 1930, had aroused Japanese interest. Agriculture (especially soybean cultivation) and mining (with its phosphate deposits) were a real object of desire for the Land of the Rising Sun. However, after the establishment of Manchkuo the economy…