We explain what the conquest of America was, which countries carried it out and what the colonization process was like. In addition, we explain the pre-Columbian civilizations.
During the 16th century, the Spanish defeated the armies of the main American states.
What was the conquest of America?
The conquest of America is known as the process through which different European kingdoms, especially Spain, They took over large parts of the American territory and subjugated its native inhabitantsThis process began in 1492 with the arrival of the first Spanish navigators to the continent and their conquest of the Antilles; an event commonly known as the “discovery of America”.
During the 16th century, The Spanish Crown financed hundreds of expeditions and managed to impose itself on the different American states and cultures.The two conquests that were key in this process were that of Mexico, when they defeated the Aztec Empire in 1519, and that of Peru, when they imposed themselves over the Inca Empire in 1531. The Spanish managed to subdue the two most powerful empires and that allowed them to consolidate their power on the continent.
After the conquest, Spain carried out a process of colonization of America. The objective was incorporate the conquered territories into the Spanish EmpireTo do this, they founded cities, settled a permanent population in them and created a complex system of government authorities.
This was made possible by the demographic decline of the indigenous populationcaused mainly by diseases brought by Europeans and by submission to Spanish rule with the consequent disintegration of its political, social and economic structures.
In parallel and in the following centuries, Other European expansionist kingdoms appropriated portions of the American continentAmong them, Portugal, which occupied the territory of present-day Brazil, and the United Kingdom, France, Holland, Denmark and Russia, which fought over territories in North America.
American populations prior to the conquest
When European expeditionaries arrived in America at the end of the 15th century, The continent was inhabited by hundreds of culturesSome of them were sedentary and had a centralized state political organization, with social stratification and complex economies. Among the most notable sedentary societies are the Aztec, Anasazi, Toltec, Teotihuacan, Zapotec, Olmec, Tairona, Maya, Chimú, Nazca, Moche and Inca cultures.
Other societies inhabited the space in a nomadic or semi-nomadic manner, taking advantage of the existing natural resources and living autonomously in the various regions of the continent. Among them, we can highlight the Apache, Mohican, Eskimo, Sioux, Kalinago and Taino cultures in North and Central America, or the Tupi, Araucanian, Guaraní and Pampa cultures in the south of the continent.
The attitude of native populations towards Europeans
Since the arrival of the Spanish to the continent, the American populations had different attitudes towards European foreigners. The great empires, such as the Inca and the Aztec, opposed the conquest of their territories. and they fought different battles against the Spanish.
Other sedentary populations, such as the Tlaxcalans, joined the Spanish against the great empires. or against enemy societies, under the promise of obtaining privileges or benefiting from defeating a common enemy.
On the other hand, nomadic or semi-nomadic populations managed to resist for longer and remain free from the European yoke. These include the Mapuche, the Comanche and the Qom, among others.
Spanish conquest of America
During the 16th century, the Spanish managed to conquer a large part of the American continent. However, the conquest had different characteristics in the different regions.
In areas controlled by large empires, such as the Inca Empire and the Aztec Empire, The Spanish managed to quickly impose themselves by eliminating the highest imperial authority and take advantage of the imperial political and administrative structure to exercise control over the territory and subdue local populations.
In turn, to achieve the conquest of these empires, the Spanish They sought the help of some indigenous peoples subjugated by the American empiresThese societies, called “friendly Indians” by the Spanish, were an essential factor in the success of the Spanish expeditions.
In addition to becoming allies in battle, they served as guides of the territory, as sources of knowledge about the local reality and as interpreters for communication between the Spanish and the native inhabitants.
On the other hand, in areas where there were no large states with centralized power and hierarchical societies, The Spanish found it more difficult to conquer and control the territoriesNomadic or semi-nomadic American societies were not previously subjected to a central power and managed to resist Spanish domination for longer.
Some regions of the American continent managed to remain free for centuriesFor example, the Araucanians in the current Chilean territory or the Pampas in the current Argentine territory.
The arrival of Europeans in America
An expedition led by Christopher Columbus arrived in the Antilles on October 12, 1492. On December 5, 1492, Columbus arrived on the island of Hispaniola (currently the countries of Haiti and the Dominican Republic) and established there the first European colony in the new world.
The construction of a fort called Navidad was planned. However, the fort was destroyed by the Taino Indians in resistance to the Spanish usurpation of their lands.
Then, on various trips, The Spanish were exploring and establishing small coloniesBetween 1499 and 1519, the Spanish managed to occupy the entire Antilles archipelago (the islands of the Caribbean Sea). The island of Cuba became the center of organization for the conquest expeditions. From there, the conquest expeditions set out for the “mainland”, that is, the rest of the American continent.
Spanish conquest of Mesoamerica
In 1517, an expedition from Cuba explored the Yucatan Peninsula, where it found the Mayan civilization, with its cities and riches. Two years later, Hernán Cortés was sent to lead an expedition to the region and learned about the existence of the Aztec Empire from a castaway who had learned the Mayan language.
From there, Cortés’ expedition conquered towns throughout Mesoamerican territory. As he advanced, The Spanish found that many people paid tribute to the Aztec empire and were dissatisfied with its domination.Thus, the Spanish gained allies among the native peoples to confront the Aztecs.
The Aztec emperor, called Moctezuma sought to negotiate with Cortés. To this end, he sent ambassadors with valuable gifts of gold and silver, and with the request that they not advance on Tenochtitlán, his main city. However, The Spanish rejected the offer and took the cityAfter an initial victory, the Aztecs rebelled and managed to expel the Spanish.
Cortés obtained reinforcements, reorganized his troops, and launched a second attack on Tenochtitlán. The Aztecs resisted and fought the Spanish in several battles until, in 1522, The city of Tenochtitlán was besieged and, without water or food, the Aztecs were definitively defeated.From then on, the Spanish called the Mesoamerican territory “New Spain,” and Cortés became its governor and captain general.
Spanish conquest of the Andean region
After the conquest of Mexico, word spread in Spain about the speed of the defeat of the great Aztec empire and legends about the wealth of the continent appeared. This led to Many others would like to embark on the conquest of other American regions..
In 1523, Francisco Pizarro and Diego de Almagro joined forces on an expedition that set out from Panama to the south. Upon reaching northern Peru, they learned of the existence of the Inca Empire. Pizarro decided to return to Spain and sign a capitulation (i.e. a special treaty) with the Spanish Crown. Finally, in 1531, he was able to embark on his expedition to conquer the Inca Empire.
Upon coming into contact with Inca society, The Spanish discovered that the Empire was going through a civil war over the succession to the throne.The two heirs in dispute were the brothers Atahualpa and Huáscar. Shortly after the arrival of the Spanish in the region, Atahualpa managed to prevail over his brother and sent a messenger with gifts of clothing and gold ornaments, with the aim of finding out the intentions of the unknown Europeans.
In response, Pizarro suggested meeting Emperor Atahualpa in the city of Cajamarca. There, The Spanish ambushed the Incas and took the emperor prisoner.Although the Incas sent a ransom payment in riches to free him, Pizarro decided to kill the emperor for fear of reprisals.
The assassination of Atahualpa had a destabilizing effect on the political structure of the empire and paralyzed the population. This allowed The Spanish took the city of Cuzco and definitively subjugated Inca society.
Reasons for Spanish success
The success of the Spanish conquest campaigns in much of the American territory has several reasons:
- Military superiority. The conquistadors carried firearms and steel swords, wore metal armor, and used horses in battle. In contrast, the native peoples were armed with stone-tipped arrows and spears and used leather and cloth protectors for defense.
- Epidemics and diseases. The arrival of the Spanish introduced unknown microbes to the American continent, which caused diseases and infections against which the American population had no defenses. Among the most deadly diseases suffered by the Americans were smallpox, tuberculosis and bubonic plague.
- Offensive strategies. The Spanish took advantage of the rivalries that existed between the different American populations and formed alliances with different populations in order to defeat their local enemies. In exchange for obtaining military support and important knowledge, the Spanish promised privileges to the indigenous chiefs and leaders.
Portuguese conquest of present-day Brazil
During the 15th century, The Kingdom of Portugal had established itself as one of the expansionist colonial empires most important in Europe, controlling important regions of Africa and Asia. With the Treaty of Tordesillas, they achieved control of a portion of the American continent.
The first Portuguese to arrive in America did so in the year 1500. It was an expedition led by Pedro Álvarez de Cabral that was heading…