The Copper Age.
It was called As an age of copper for a long time, this period that coincides with the calcolitic period (it is also known as eolitic) of the stone age, but according to a more up -to -date classification it is presumed that its start was around 6000 AC and 2500 AC, it is now considered more as a transition period before the Bronze Age, since few human settlements knew this technique according to the findings, being in many cases what they used in many cases that used to its trade or exchange with the few cultures or human settlements that if they knew how to elaborate it and that usually precede the period of bronze use.
Copper was one of the first metals that man uses, using it first in his natural state since he did not know the mechanisms by which the mineral could be melted. Although not all human settlements, they came to use or even know their use, until they meet more advanced cultures than if they knew how to obtain this metal.
It was not until the ceramic elaboration techniques were perfected much later, that man was possible to achieve success with the experimentation of the metallurgical processes in the third millennium AC, adding other metals obtaining new alloys such as arsenic first and the tin later which gave rise to bronze.
The most manufactured objects were tools in axes, perforated and double-use stone (ax-pico, hammer or hoe), since copper is not hard enough to use it in tools. Copper was therefore used for the elaboration of ornaments, (rings, bracelets and pins) for decorative use, not for utilitarian use, since the artifacts made of stone were much stronger and more durable.
Metal objects such as Biblos could also include the use of gold and silver.
Ceramics
As we had said before, the development of the ceramics I play a very important role in understanding the techniques to work the metal. These ceramic vessels are of excellent quality, red or brown-reddish, profusely decorated with incised horizontal bands (engraved) or printed, with geometric, scratching, chess, etc.
The cuneiform vessel, was a lithic tract manifestation that was manifested throughout Europe and because of its inverted and profusely decorated bell shape, which is why they are called with this name, they have generally been found in funeral contexts.
Contemporary cordada ceramics with the cuneiform vessel, developed in Europe, a ceramic decorated with strings and is associated with the introduction of metal in northern Europe.
Apart from ceramics, which best defines this archaeological horizon are funeral trousseau, which usually consist, almost invariably, in a ceramic glass, bone manufactured ornaments, buttons with a vo characteristic in V, clay pendants in the form of growing, spirals of gold, abundant arrows called palmela, triangular daggers of copper Shooting (middle grade metamorphic rocks).
Bronze age-2500-800 BC
The bronze era is characterized by important milestones in the history of mankind. A greater diffusion of agriculture and cattle raising occurs and the mastering of a new material – metal: copper and its alloys. At the beginning of metal periods, greater contact between peoples living in vast territories occurs.
This socialization and contact process is especially manifested in the territory of the Eurasian steppe, where the Paleo Metal period began the productive economy of cattle breeding. In many ways it was Related to the new technical advances, such as wheel vehicles and already in the late bronze period – with the use of a horse to mount.
The changes in the technological aspect stand out compared to those of economic and social type generating a long -distance trade intensification, a certain labor specialization and the increase in social differentiation. A clear proliferation of trades and some artisanal specialization is detected.
The objects elaborated for personal or domestic use also made the difference in the social aspect since the wealthiest had access to more elaborate and ornate objects and this also extended to the funeral element, the weapons, and general aspects of urban life.
Not in all the regions it was, for example, in America, metallurgy does not seem to have had socio-economic implications but only techniques.
The bronze age in art has some specific characteristics. It becomes more diverse and spreads geographically. Petroglyphs (cave paintings), painting on smaller objects, sculpture and stelae, the use of ornaments and artistic images for decorating tools and domestic articles are frequent.
In the art of this period it is highlighted that in each region the changes that occurred by the use of metal had particular characteristics to each region.
Iron age
Historical period during which iron replaced bronze as manufacturing material of instruments and weapons. Iron seems to have been widely used and for the first time in the Middle East by the hititas between 2000 and 1500 AC and spread from there to Europe, south of Asia and North Africa.
In Europe the first objects were obtained by hammering, it is not known whether it melted or added carbon, aspects already known by the hititas.
Iron Age is the last period of prehistory before the beginning of history with the invention of writing. The era of iron was developed in the first millennium before Christ in the Iberian Peninsula and constitutes the final stage of the age of metals.
The greatest advantage of iron over bronze resided in the fact that the reefs to extract the mineral were much more abundant and therefore cheaper compared to bronze.
No alloy was necessary and constituted an admirable material for the manufacture of mountains, axes, azuelas and nails. It was, however, much more difficult to work and it was never achieved a sufficiently high temperature during prehistoric times to melt iron in mold, except in China.
The bargain was simply heated in an oven; The iron was separated from the slag; The iron was overheated, turned into a single block, and, finally, metal was worked through the use of the hammer to give it the required shape.
Horn -shaped iron helmet. British museum. Iron Age.Like the entire process radically differed from the manufacture of copper or bronze objects, it is not surprising that iron work was a direct evolution of bronze work, which was mainly used for personal ornament elements, such as pins or mirrors.
Iron for its strength characteristics were adopted more for work instruments and weapons. Gold and silver continued to be prestigious materials, employed to make, for example, torques (heavy bracelets carried by Celtic warriors).
Military technology designed to take advantage of the use of iron originated in Assyria. Iron trade between Assyria and the independent city of Troy was already well established on those dates, and the secret of its production was jealously kept by the Assyrians.
Celtic peoples in Europe when starting iron for their tools and weapons, promote the development of culture, due to the possibility that they provide more precisely solving the problems that daily life presents.
This factor facilitates not only better results but less time spent in practical tasks, then being able to develop the artistic part. The use of metal favors work in the rock, Nordic petroglyphs are an example of the importance that culture charges and these continue to be carried out to historical periods.
Therefore the architecture used in the walls that protect the city already have great necropolis and burial vigilance towers.
In Central Europe for example From the thirteenth century, the funeral custom of incineration began to spread, with the consequent deposit of the ashes in ceramic polls.