“Archaeoastronomy is the global interdisciplinary study of prehistoric, ancient, and traditional astronomy within its cultural context. Both written and archaeological sources can be included in this study, covering calendars, direct observation, celestial cults and myths, symbolic representation of astronomical events, concepts and objects, astronomical orientation of temples, sanctuaries, burials and urban centers; traditional cosmology and the ceremonial application of astronomical traditions.
Edwin C. Krupp, History of Astronomy: an Encyclopedia
Archaeoastronomy is, put simply, the study of the orientations of archaeological monuments and their possible relationship with different bodies or events stellar. Examples of Stonehenge or the pyramids of Giza are famous. However, keep in mind that this discipline is purely statistical: the orientation of a structure can be intentional or simply accidental. Without other similar examples or concrete information on the culture that built them to support this hypothetical orientation, one can only speculate. In this way, the orientations of Stonehenge are supported by other examples of megalithism that may also respond to similar orientations, and the pyramids of Giza, in addition to their accuracy, by the knowledge we have of Egyptian astronomy.
This time we are going to talk about less famous examples, but that are related to both. It’s about the funerary monuments of North Africa corresponding to Protohistory, in the bronze age. They were built by pre-Berber cultures, which, although they never constituted the same community, did have similar cultural traits in some aspects, a few of which can even be traced in the current customs of the communities that descend from them.
Although at first something like this seems very far from Stonehenge, in reality it is part of the same phenomenon, megalithism. Megalithic construction is characterized by the use of stone as a construction material, from small pieces to heavy blocks of enormous dimensions. Monuments are usually completed with large masses of land (Benedict, 2010: pp. 17). This is a cultural phenomenon that was born in the 5th millennium BC on the European Atlantic coast, extending from the British Isles and Scandinavia to the north, and thanks to the connection through the Mediterranean, to North Africa as the southern border, and from the Atlantic to the Caucasus and Syria to the east, passing through most of the Mediterranean islands (Belmonte, 1999: pp. 51). The Mediterranean, today a border, is now a constant channel of influences.
The megalithic phenomenon Therefore, it arrives later in North Africa and megalithic monuments begin to be built in the areas of sedentary farmers. These areas include northern Morocco, Tunisia, and eastern Algeria (Hoskin, 2001: pp. 8). Along with the monuments also came cultural and religious ideas, and with them, megalithic art. Since these societies did not have any form of writing, this art becomes one of the best sources of information we have on these cultures. The other is the funerary monuments themselves: their method of construction, their orientations, the relationship with the landscape… Together they tell us about their interests, among which the stars are the most important, and especially the Moon and the Sun. (Belmonte and Hoskin, 2002: pp. 303-305).
The study of this is in charge of archaeoastronomy or archeotopography (the study of the relationship of monuments with the landscape). Monuments usually have an axis of symmetry that marks a preferred orientation. By having an entrance through which to introduce the body of the deceased and the offerings, this direction is usually defined as that of the entire monument, as it is the one towards which its occupants would “look” (Hoskin, 2008: pp. 85).
Therefore, we find a monument that marks a certain line. With it, we can obtain a series of data that allows us to analyze the orientation. These data would be the azimuth and height.
This line defines a specific angle with respect to the celestial North Pole, measured clockwise (Hoskin, 2008: pp. 85). This angle is called azimuth. That is, a monument that was oriented towards the absolute East would have an azimuth of 90°. Another variable when defining an orientation is the height. A monument facing the sunrise would have a height that would coincide with that of the horizon. Finally, it is necessary to take into account the latitude in which the monument is located, since it affects the amount of horizon in which a sunrise or moonrise occurs. This reason is why, for example, the midnight sun occurs. With these data the astronomical declination can be calculated. It is a predictable fact: each celestial body has a certain declination at a certain moment.
Once the orientations have been measured, it has to be analyzed if they form a pattern that can define some pattern or custom. If it is decided that the orientations do not seem to be random, it is analyzed whether this tradition has a topographical origin or follows some astronomical marker.
If it is decided that it has an astronomical basis, it is necessary to define with what phenomenon or astral body. It can be oriented towards the Sun, the Moon, the planets or stars or constellations. The most reliable, stable and popular are the orientations related to the Sun and the Moon. And of these, the point through which its exit occurs at the solstices and equinoxes (Hoskin, 2008: pp. 86-88).
These points are included within an azimuth range, where the solar is set as the northernmost point on the winter solstice and the southernmost point on the summer solstice. The lunar range moves a bit further north and south respectively.
After these technical considerations, we can now start talking about specific examples of these funerary monuments in North Africa. This region was inhabited by a series of peoples that have been called proto-Berbers. These cultures have suffered many influences throughout history: Punic, Roman, Christian, Muslim… But there are still traces of their beliefs both in classical sources, such as Herodotus, and in current traditions in the area. It seems to be clear in both the sacred character of the mountains, caves and mountains; as well as some divinities related to the Sun and the Moon, the latter being a masculine divinity known as Ieru (or variants such as Eior or Iour) (Camps, 1995: pp. 158).
These beliefs will have an influence on the orientations of the monuments that we are going to talk about next. Specifically, from the Wadi el Agial, Foum al Rajm, Al Las, Fadnun and Messak Settafet deposits.
Wadi el Agial is an oasis located in the southeast of Libya. This area was the territory of the Garamantes kingdom, with its capital in Garama. It was the only Libyan kingdom that was not annexed to the Roman Empire, maintaining its independence until the arrival of Islam. This makes it a very interesting example, since they were not directly influenced by the Romans, so they kept many of the old Libyan customs.
Although we have mentioned that the capital was in Garama, before the second century BC this kingdom had another capital: Zinkhecra. This city was founded in the 9th century BC, and is completely surrounded by cliffs, which makes it very easy to defend (Belmonte et al., 2002: pp. 1).
Apparently Zinkhecra had a certain sacred character, with a cave sanctuary with a set of cups carved into the rock. This sanctuary is located on the edge of a cliff from which you have a privileged view of the oasis of Garama and Messak, and also of the place where both meet. At this point, called Djebel Tush, sunrise occurs during the summer solstice. This point was so important that the new capital was built facing this place. By abandoning itself as the capital, Zinkhecra maintained its status as a religious and funerary center (Belmonte, Esteban, Perera, 2000: pp. 94-96).
In this area we can also find thousands of stone tombs. The great majority are circular burial mounds, which present a problem, since it is very difficult to establish their orientation. However, offering tables can be associated with these tombs, so in cases where these are found in their original place they can help determine it. These offering tables are also associated with decorative stone slabs, which can also be divided into three forms: obelisks, related to the sun; horns or crescents, related to the moon; and hands of Fatima, related to the cult of the goddess Tanit, whose symbol is the crescent moon and the star, and who may be the personification of Venus. These tombs are located in four nuclei: Kharaig, Saniat ben Howedi, El Hatiya and the Royal Necropolis (Belmonte et al., 2002: pp. 1-3).
In Kharaig We can find two types of monuments: circular burial mounds and pyramids with a rectangular base. Today 34 are preserved, 24 are pyramids that can be measured, to which must be added a circular tumulus with its table and its stela, of the Fatima hand type, still in place. Of the latter there is no doubt that its orientation was towards the east. As for the pyramids, it has also been considered that their orientation was towards the east. This is due to the fact that, while in the rest of the orientations the measurements varied a lot, towards the east they were very regular (Belmonte et al., 2002: pp. 6).
In Sanyat ben Howedi there are fifty tombs built with mud bricks. This nucleus is very interesting because two superimposed stages of tombs can be distinguished: the lower level with mastaba-type tombs, with a square plan; and on top of type bazin, typically Libyan, with a square base on which a circular structure is superimposed. In this core you can find tombs facing west or east, but always at sunrise or sunset or the moon. It is important to note that the west-facing tombs are only found on the lower level. This may mean a change in funeral customs, from a more liberal one to a more restrictive one (Belmonte et al., 2002: pp. 7).
The Royal Necropolis It is located south of Garama, and was originally divided into two sectors. In one there are mastaba-type tombs and circular burial mounds, in the other there are 21 monumental mastabas, which have been considered the tombs of kings. The monuments that have been measured in this necropolis have resulted in an orientation towards the east, with a declination close to 0°, that is, towards sunrise or moonrise during the equinoxes (Belmonte et al., 2002: pp. 8).
As to The Hatiya, nothing could be found to indicate a preferred orientation. But once measured, the constancy in its orientations is clear, with two stellar explanations…